The Gendered Impacts of Perceived Skin Tone: Evidence from African American Siblings in 1870-1940

2026-10-06

AI Summary

This study investigates how skin tone influences the economic outcomes of African Americans and whether the underlying mechanisms exhibit gender differences. Leveraging linked full-count U.S. Census data from 1870 to 1940, the authors introduce a novel sibling-pair fixed effects model that effectively disentangles family background from individual-level discrimination, thereby enabling causal identification of skin tone effects. The paper precisely quantifies the gender heterogeneity in these impacts. The findings reveal that skin tone significantly constrains women’s educational attainment and marital prospects, with darker-skinned women facing more severe direct discrimination. Conversely, among men, skin tone differentials are attenuated by the “one-drop rule,” and their earnings disparities primarily stem from unequal intra-household resource allocation rather than direct labor market discrimination.

Abstract

We study differences in economic outcomes by perceived skin tone among African Americans using full-count U.S. decennial census data from the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Comparing children coded as "Black" or "Mulatto" by census enumerators and linking these children across population censuses, we first document large gaps in educational attainment and income among African Americans with darker and lighter perceived skin tones. To disentangle the drivers of these gaps, we identify all 35,992 families in which enumerators assigned same-gender siblings different Black/Mulatto classifications. Relative to sisters coded as Mulatto, sisters coded as Black had lower educational attainment, were less likely to marry, and had less-educated, likely lower-earning husbands. These patterns are consistent with more severe contemporaneous discrimination against African American women with darker perceived skin tones. In contrast, we find similar educational attainment, marital outcomes, and incomes among differently-classified brothers. Men perceived as African Americans of any skin tone faced similar contemporaneous discrimination, consistent with the "one-drop" racial classification rule that grouped together individuals with any known Black ancestry. Lower incomes for African American men perceived as having darker skin tone in the general population were driven by differences in opportunities and resources that varied across families, likely reflecting the impacts of historical or family-level discrimination.

Problem

• skin tone discrimination
• economic outcomes
• African Americans
• gender differences
• colorism

Innovation

• skin tone discrimination
• historical census data
• sibling comparison
• gender differences
• record linkage